Vine (lat. Vitis vinifera L.) belongs to the group of perennial climbers and the Vitaceae family, i.e. vines. The vine, whose form is cultivated, is professionally called Vitis vinifera ssp. vinifera. The popular names of vines are trs, loza, čokot, wine vine, vinika and others, and it often depends on the place where the vine is grown.
A vine stalk can grow up to 20 meters in height. Its branches are furrowed in dark yellow or red-brown color. The branches climb up the support, pergola, trees or bushes with the help of tendrils. The older the plants, the more their bark peels along the length. It has a well-developed and deep root.
The leaves of the vine can grow from 7 to 15 cm, are green, and in several places are cut through the lobes. The edges of the leaves are coarsely toothed, and they are located on long petioles. There are small hairs on the back of the leaves. Some varieties turn red on the leaves in the autumn months.
The vine flowers are small, regular in shape and yellow-green in color. They are bisexual and gathered in bunches with a wonderful smell. Their flowering takes place in June and lasts very short, a few days.
Their inflorescences are made of corolla and calyx and are double. The calyx consists of five teeth and is short, and the corolla is made of five green petals. The pistil contains a dichotomous carpel containing two seeds in each compartment. It has five stamens.
The fruits are round berries, yellow, dark red or purple in color (depending on the variety) and a combined sweet and sour taste.
The fruit of the vine is called a grape. Clusters consist of many berries and are connected together into a whole. Inside each berry on the cluster are two to three seeds.
Vine flowers are often visited by bees that collect pollen and nectar from them. In addition, they suck the juices from ripe and often cracked fruits and thus can prevent the berries from rotting.
The grapes ripen in the summer months, usually in August or September.
The grapevine has been cultivated since ancient times, and its beginnings are thought to have been recorded on the border between the Caspian or Black seas, while others claim that it originated in the Mediterranean. In some places it can also be found in the wild, along the very edges of forests or in forests where more light is available.
Today, grapevine cultivation has spread throughout the world. Through years and centuries of cultivation, numerous varieties have been created, the number of which has grown to 20,000. There are as many as 196 autochthonous grape varieties in Croatia.
Types of vines
There are more than 20,000 grape varieties in the world, and in Croatia, 196 varieties intended for the production of wine and other products are recognized.
In 1946, Nerguli divided grapevine varieties into three groups with common biological characteristics, namely: the Pannonian and Black Sea basin varieties group, the Eastern group (convarietas orientalis) and the Western European group (convarietas occidentalis).
In addition to the above, the divisions are also common with regard to the way of use, namely for: processing into wine (wine varieties), consumption for eating in fresh form (toothpicks – table varieties), production of juices, concentrates and musts, drying – raisins, distillates , compotes, marmalades and decorative purposes.
In our areas, the most cultivated grape varieties are the following: white wine varieties, black wine varieties, and red wine varieties.
Immediately after them, there are table varieties whose application is becoming more significant and wider.
Detailed information about grape varieties >>
Choice of breeding form
When growing vines, it is necessary to know that the choice of cultivation form is one of the most important items when raising a vineyard. With regard to the cultivation form, the vine is shaped and maintained.
There are a number of conditions that affect the choice of cultivation form, and one of the most important is the expected quality and quantity of grapes. The cultivation form is selected with regard to the substrate, as well as climatic conditions and soil fertility. They affect the use of the necessary machinery.
To this day, through history and tradition, there are different systems of growing vines, which are named after their shape (fan, forked…), according to the region where they are grown (Iloč, Istrian, Kastelan…), according to the author (Moser, Guyot …) or by cutting method (cortina, crown…)
However, they all come from the main breeding forms – two-legged, fan, forked, and with respect to them there are frequent modifications.
More detailed information about the choice of breeding form >>
Planting vines
Since the vine is a climber, in order to grow it successfully, it needs support or support for growth – armature. Grapevines are rarely grown without support, and if such cultivation is used, it is almost always vineyards in very warm regions, such as our Dalmatia.
As we mentioned, growing vines is almost impossible without reinforcement, which includes: poles, wires, anchors (anchors), wire tensioners, additional equipment (supports, chains, hooks and others)
The substrate for planting must be adapted to the climatic conditions of the area where the vineyard will be planted. When choosing a substrate, special attention should be paid to the chemical analysis of the soil, i.e. whether it contains physiologically active lime.
In Europe, vines are not planted on their own roots because European varieties are not resistant to vine aphids (phylloskera). After the aphid arrived on European soil, the grafting of the vine began because it attacks the root itself. The vine is grafted onto the American Vitis species, which is resistant to the pest. When crossing varieties, the best results were achieved when American varieties were crossed. For this purpose, crossed American species and some noble lines were created. More and more work is being done to create even better substrates, and as a result, complex crosses are created.
The grapevine is a perennial crop, so before planting the plantations themselves, quality work and preparations before planting should be carried out, which will create ideal conditions for the development of the above-ground parts of the plant and its root system. A well-developed vine will maintain resistance in all weather conditions and will provide a good yield even in unfavorable ones.
Before raising plantations, it is necessary to make preparations such as: arrangement of the place where the vines will be planted (planning of production in the field and clearing of vegetation that was previously planted on the ground), soil preparation for raising plantations, drainage and irrigation (hydromelioration) and fertilization and rigolanja (agromelioration).
Preparations for planting vines. Before you start planting vines, mark the planting sites in order to plan the vineyard well. If you are planting vines on larger areas, you will need the help of a theodolite (surveying instrument). With it, you will be able to determine with certainty in which direction the first row will go, because all other rows must be at right angles to that first row. Vines can be planted in: pits and furrows.
A good yield and successful production largely depend on quality seedlings, that is, a good vine graft for planting. In order to meet all of the above, said seedlings must be healthy with a well-developed root system and at least three well-developed root shoots (1 to 2 mm at the base).
The root must be properly distributed, the rootstock must be mature, with well-developed buds. The joint must be callused, that is, completely fused. Check to see if it is callused by placing your thumb on the bone. It should then not separate from the substrate.
Planting material must be disinfected so that young plants do not become infected with viruses and certified.
The use of paraffin-embedded vaccines is recommended because they have a number of advantages. For example, the connection point cannot dry out, lateral roots develop less, and the grafts do not get covered.
Since the vine remains planted in the same place for many years (25 to 30 years), it is necessary to choose a planting position that will suit it best and where favorable yields will be achieved with high-quality grape varieties.
Before planting vine plantations, it is necessary to assess the success of production, the possibility of ecological planting of vines, the general organization of work related to the market, mechanization, transport, processing.
The winegrower must decide for himself which type of planting to choose, and it will depend on the size of the plot, the type of vine and the configuration of the terrain. The time to plant vines is in autumn or spring.
The planting time depends on whether you plant the vine in the Mediterranean or continental part of Croatia. Spring planting is generally recommended, especially in continental areas where winters are harsh and temperatures are below freezing. Plant it from March to May, and the exact month of planting also depends on the choice of soil type. Plant earlier on lighter, sandy soils, and later on heavier, loamy soils.
Autumn planting is recommended exclusively in areas with mild winters, where there is no danger of soil freezing, which is possible in the Mediterranean parts of the country.
Detailed information about planting vines >>
Cultivation of vines
The area, which includes the soil on which the vines grow, needs regular maintenance. Soil maintenance in the vineyard most often includes: soil cultivation, weeding, application of weed killers (herbicides), combination of herbicide application and weeding, combination of soil cultivation and herbicide use.
Since the disparity between rainfall and dry periods has been growing lately, irrigation of vineyards has become one of the basic measures, even where there was no need for irrigation until a few years ago.
In order for grapes to achieve a good yield, one of the important agrotechnical measures is regular and proper fertilization of the vineyard. Plant nutrients are needed by the vine in order to carry out the metabolic processes essential for growth and development.
Soil fertilization is important because it improves the chemical properties of the soil, increases soil fertility, affects the water-air regime and affects microbiological activity.
If, during the growing season, there is a lack of an element on the shoots or leaves, certain symptoms appear, according to which it can be determined with certainty which element is missing. In addition to visual determination of the lack of certain elements, it can also be determined in the laboratory – by chemical analysis of leaves and soil.
In the case of vineyards that are at the peak of their yield, regular controls are necessary in order to detect deficiencies in time that need to be compensated.
During the growing season, macroelements and microelements can easily be compensated with the help of liquid foliar fertilizers. Vineyards located on highly permeable soils where nutrients are often washed away need to be fertilized more. Therefore, in addition to the basic and supplementary fertilizers, mineral fertilizers should also be included – especially those with nitrogen, which need to be added several times.
More detailed information about vine cultivation >>
Maintenance and care
In order for the vineyard to achieve good and long-term yields, it needs to be properly maintained.
A newly planted vineyard needs regular maintenance and care in order for it to grow into quality vines. The care system consists of certain agrotechnical works that include: removal of excess saplings, connection of saplings, tillage, removal of surface roots, threshing of newly grown saplings, removal of stipules, protection against pests and protection against diseases.
Pruning of the native vineyard must be done once a year. Pruning is the most important measure in the production of grapes, and pruning: shapes the growing form of the variety, maintains the vineyard, affects the quality of the grapes, affects the yield, regulates reproductive and vegetative potential, affects the health of the vineyard itself.
The vineyard can suffer the most from frost and hail. Considering the above, we can protect the vineyard in the following ways: protection of the vineyard from frost and protection of the vineyard from hail.
The vine is propagated vegetatively by: grafting (grafting), cuttings, layering, submerging the cuttings. Propagation by grafting is the most common, and the remaining methods are practiced in older vine plantations (after the fourth year of age). Then it is necessary to fill the vineyard.
More detailed information about vine maintenance >>
Diseases and pests of grapevine
In order to successfully protect your vineyard from the attacks of diseases and pests, it is necessary to know well the symptoms that appear and develop after the attack itself.
To prevent diseases on the vine, it is necessary to know the biology of the disease itself, the conditions under which it appears and develops, and ultimately how to prevent them and how to protect the plant with chemical means if the disease occurs.
Grape downy mildew is better known in our country under the name downy mildew, and it arrived in Europe from the USA through the American species Vitis, which was imported at the end of the 19th century as a basis for the development of species resistant to phylloxera. Flame blight can attack saplings, flowers, leaves, berries and bunches, and is caused by a fungus called Plasmopara viticola.
Powdery mildew or Uncinula necator in Latin is the first disease that arrived in Europe, and it has a foreign origin. It was first recorded in a place not far from London in 1845, and soon spread to all Mediterranean countries. Today it is common in places where vines are grown. It causes enormous damage to the grapes, and the yield can be reduced by 80 to 90%. The disease can attack leaves, tendrils, shoots, berries and flowers, and is caused by a fungus called Uncinula necator.
Red blight of the grapevine or in Latin Pseudopezicula tracheiphila, is a disease that originates from Europe, and which occurs in areas where there is not enough water and on slightly lighter soils. In our areas, it usually occurs in the area of Moslavina vineyards and in Plješivica, and the most sensitive is Portugizac. The disease attacks the leaves and is caused by a fungus called Pseudopezicula tracheiphila. The parasite enters the bundles of leaves through the mycelium and thus prevents the development of juices. The tissue runs out of water, so the leaves between the veins dry out and die. There is the development of spots that take on the appearance of triangles. The color of the resulting spots changes, from the initial light yellow to red-brown.
Grapevine gray mold or Botrytis cinerea in Latin causes damage to leaves, shoots, petioles and berries. The main cause of the disease is a fungus called Botrytis cinerea. The fungus causes double damage – it reduces the yield by 3.5%, and sometimes by significantly more, and causes poor quality of must and wine. Namely, the fungus consumes larger amounts of sugar and acid from the berries, the taste of which eventually takes on the taste of apple cider vinegar. The disease manifests itself on the leaves in the form of yellow spots that can later turn brown. In wet places, gray patches will appear from the freckle. The fungus can attack the green shoots and the stem of the bunch even before flowering, and the whole bunch can fall off.
The black spot of the rose or the Latin Phomopsis viticola was discovered only in 1973. After the use of fungicides based on sulfur and copper was reduced, the aforementioned disease became an increasing problem. It is a disease that gradually depletes the plant, and the yield decreases more and more every year. According to the available data, damages can be higher than 30%. The disease attacks saplings, leaves and branches, and is caused by the fungus Phomopsis viticola.
In order to recognize the pest that attacked your vine, it is necessary to recognize the symptoms that the pest leaves on the generative and vegetative parts of the plant. After that, you can think about protection with chemical or organic means. You can apply protective agents before the appearance of pests as a sign of prevention or after you notice that one of the pests has appeared. It is recommended to carry out regular control of the vineyard, as this is the only way to save the plantations in a timely manner.
Phylloxera or Latin Viteus vitifoliae, better known as vine aphid, was brought to Europe, more precisely to France, around 1980 from America. It quickly spread throughout all European countries and left behind thousands of ruined vineyards. It is a small pest that is only 0.7 to 1.4 mm long, and rare forms grow up to 2 mm. It attacks so that a filet comes out through the stalk, with which it pierces the tissue of the plant and thus sucks the juices from it.
Cluster moth or Latin Lobesia botrana; Clysia ambiguella includes yellow and ash moths which, although called moths, belong to the group of benders. It is one of the most significant vine pests. The ash moth can be found all over Croatia and is widespread everywhere except in the northwestern parts of Croatia where the yellow moth is more widespread. It attacks fruits (grape berries) and flowers. It can grow up to 7 mm, while its wingspan is from 11 to 15 mm, depending on the species. One is ash gray, the other yellow, and each of them has a pupa from which a caterpillar emerges. In the ash moth the caterpillar is green with a yellow or brown head, while in the yellow moth it is pink when young and later white. The yellow grape moth has two generations per year, while the ash moth has as many as three.
Lozine pine mites differ from other arachnids in that they have two pairs of legs. They are small, oblong, 0.03 mm wide and 0.6 mm long. Their body is white. Since they are very small, they can sometimes only be seen with the help of a magnifying glass. The most famous varieties of pine mite are: acarinosis – Latin Calepitrimerus vitis and erinosis – Latin Colomerus vitis.
Cigaroš or Latin Byctiscus betulae is a pest that appears most often in Dalmatia and Istria. Attacks leaves and buds. Adult pests have a body of different colors, from light green and shiny to blue and copper and metallic. They can grow from 6 to 9 mm. The larva of this pest has no legs, is 6 mm long and white in color.
Grape thrips or Latin Drepanothrips reuteri is a common pest in vineyards in the continental part of Croatia and in the coastal areas. The pest attacks young shoots, leaves and bunches. An adult pest is smaller than 1 mm and its color is light yellow. An adult female can overwinter on the branches of the vine, which in the spring begins to feed on the young shoots of the plant. On average, one female can lay up to 100 eggs. Larvae emerge from the eggs after six to ten days, they feed on leaves and bunches. They develop from six to nine days, and there are several generations during one year.
More detailed information about vine diseases and pests >>
Ripening, harvesting and storage of grapes
Weather conditions during grape ripening can greatly affect grape quality and yield. If the weather is unfavorable, wet and cold during the ripening of the grapes or there is an excessive drought, we are talking about bad weather during the ripening of the grapes.
Grapes ripen best when temperatures during the day are moderate, from 20 to 25 degrees Celsius, and during the night slightly lower than the stated daytime temperatures. At the same time, grape berries need sufficient moisture in the soil and enough sun and light.
Such conditions bring yields whose grape berries contain high concentrations of sugar, have good aroma and acid ratio, and are in a favorable state of health.
When the time comes to harvest grapes, it is necessary to prepare all the necessary materials and the room where the grapes will be stored after harvesting. Since grape harvesting involves a lot of containers and tools, as well as machines and the necessary space, all of the above must be prepared before grape harvesting. In addition, a sufficient number of workers and transport after the harvest should be organized.
Grape harvesting is done during warm, dry and sunny weather. It is not recommended to harvest during high temperatures, so it should be done in the early morning or late afternoon.
Sometimes it is performed more than once, which also depends on the variety of varieties in the vineyard. In addition, when harvesting, you should pay attention to the fact that only those bunches are harvested that are healthy and ripe, and as such guarantee quality must.
Grapes are stored in crates immediately after harvesting, and the capacity of each is from 20 to 30 kilograms. Stored in this way, it is the least damaged.
After harvesting, it is necessary to inspect the grapes and those berries or parts of grapes that are moldy, remove and throw away. Such berries are infected and can lead to infection of healthy berries as well.
To the place where the grapes are stored or processed, the grapes are transported in plastic or wooden containers.
The most important thing from harvesting to transportation and storage is that the berries should not be crushed. It must be undamaged until the time of processing or transport to the market (table grapes).
Many have the habit of crushing the grapes immediately after harvesting and leaving them as such in barrels or plastic bags. But that is not correct. Wines made from such grapes may be prone to developing diseases and darkening.
Until processing, it is recommended to keep the grapes in a dark, cool and windy place.
Detailed information about ripening, harvesting and storage of grapes >>
Preparations
As grapes are often used in the diet, we bring you recipes for the most popular winter wine made from grapes:
Photo: JillWellington / Pixabay